Who Is Ibrahim Rugova

Ibrahim Rugova (Crnce near Istok, 2 December 1944 – Pristina, 21 January 2006) was an Albanian writer, literary critic and politician from Kosovo and Metohija. He was the founder and long-time leader of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), a party he launched in 1989 in response to the abolition of the province’s autonomy.

During the 1990s he was the most influential politician among Albanians in Kosovo and Metohija. He campaigned for independence by peaceful means only, which led journalists and many observers to call him the “Gandhi of the Balkans.” In 1992 he was elected president of the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo, then officially recognised only by Albania. In 2002 the Assembly of Kosovo elected him president within the provisional institutions under United Nations administration.

Before entering politics, Rugova was known as a literary theorist, editor and researcher at the Albanological Institute in Pristina. He studied in Paris under Roland Barthes, published several books of essays and studies, and became recognisable to the public for his silk scarf and calm manner. His path, from peaceful resistance through the war years to the presidency, still draws different assessments, which makes this biography of interest to anyone following the recent history of the Balkans.

Origins and Childhood

Ibrahim Rugova was born on 2 December 1944 in the village of Crnce (Albanian: Cërrcë) in the municipality of Istok, in the west of Kosovo and Metohija. He came from a family regarded as a branch of the Albanian Kelmendi tribe. Sources differ on the family’s social standing: some say it belonged to large landowners, others that it was engaged in trade.

He was born near the very end of the Second World War. Most of Kosovo and Metohija was then attached to Albania under Italian control and, from 1943, under German administration. At the end of November 1944, Yugoslav partisans, together with the Bulgarian army, re-established control over the area.

Family loss marked his childhood from the very beginning. According to several sources, his father Uke Rugova and his grandfather Rruste Rugova were executed in early 1945, only a month after his birth, by Yugoslav communists. Albanian sources give the date as 10 January 1945. Rugova thus grew up without a father, and some authors believe this early experience of loss shaped his outlook on life.

Education

Rugova completed primary school in Istok and secondary school in Peja (Peć), where he graduated in 1967. He then enrolled at the newly founded University of Pristina, at the Faculty of Philosophy, in the department of Albanian language and literature. As a student he took part in the Kosovo demonstrations of 1968, and at that time he also joined, according to available data, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia.

He graduated in 1971 and continued as a researcher focused on literary theory. During the 1976/1977 academic year he stayed in Paris at the École Pratique des Hautes Études, working under Roland Barthes, the prominent theorist and critic. He received his doctorate at the University of Pristina in 1984. Most sources give that year, while some mention 1986. His doctoral thesis dealt with the directions and premises of Albanian literary criticism.

Academic recognition followed later. In 1996 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo, and in the same year the University of Paris VIII awarded him an honorary doctorate.

Early Career and Literary Work

After his studies, Rugova worked as a research fellow at the Albanological Institute in Pristina, where for some time he was also editor-in-chief of the journal Gjurmime albanologjike (“Albanological Research”). He also worked as a journalist. During the 1970s he edited the student newspaper Bota e re (“New World”) and the magazine Dituria (“Knowledge”). According to some sources, he later held a professorship at the University of Pristina.

He published around ten books of essays, studies and literary criticism, as well as his own poetry. His writing consistently interweaves literature, language and the question of Albanian identity. Among his most important titles are:

• Prekje lirike (“Lyrical Touches”, essays, 1971);
• Kah teoria (“Towards Theory”, essays, 1978);
• Bibliography of Albanian Literary Criticism 1944–1974 (1976, with Isak Shema);
• Kritika letrare (nga De Rada te Migjeni) (“Literary Criticism”, an anthology with commentary, 1979, with Sabri Hamiti);
• Strategjia e kuptimit (“Strategy of Meaning”, essays, 1980);
• Vepra e Bogdanit 1675–1685 (a study of Bogdani’s work, 1982);
• Kahe dhe premisa të kritikës letrare shqiptare 1504–1983 (“Directions and Premises of Albanian Literary Criticism 1504–1983”, 1986);
• Refuzimi estetik (“Aesthetic Rejection”, essays, 1987);
• Pavarësia dhe demokracia (“Independence and Democracy”, interviews and occasional pieces, 1991);
• La question du Kosovo (conversations with French authors, Paris, 1994, with a preface by Ismail Kadare);
• Kompleti i veprave (collected works in eight volumes, 2005).

Break with the Communist Authorities

In 1988 Rugova was elected president of the Kosovo Writers’ Union, which considerably raised his public standing. One source gives 1998, but most sources, including The Guardian, mention 1988.

In the late 1980s tensions in Kosovo and Metohija rose sharply. Albanians were dissatisfied with their position, while part of the Serbian population criticised the policies of the provincial authorities. In 1989 the Serbian authorities under Slobodan Milošević adopted measures that reverted the province’s autonomy to its pre-1974 level. According to estimates cited in the literature, around 130,000 Albanians lost their jobs, and the police force was almost entirely purged of Albanians.

Rugova was among the signatories of the “Appeal of 215 Kosovo Intellectuals” against the change in the province’s status. After he called for changes to the constitution, he was expelled from the League of Communists. According to the portal Gazeta Tema, in June 1989, at the height of the commemoration of six centuries since the Battle of Kosovo, he came under attack over an interview, and the Socialist League demanded that his membership in the Writers’ Union be revoked. In this way, the writer gradually became a political actor.

Founding of the Democratic League of Kosovo

The Democratic League of Kosovo was founded on 23 December 1989, and Rugova was elected its first president. According to sources, it was the first party in Kosovo and Metohija to openly challenge the ruling communist regime. The party’s goal was to achieve independence for Kosovo and Metohija by peaceful means.

The party quickly won mass support. According to estimates cited in the literature, around 700,000 people joined within a few months, which amounted to almost the entire adult Albanian population. Rugova thereby became the undisputed leader of his community.

Parallel Institutions and the Policy of Non-Violent Resistance

Albanians boycotted Yugoslav and Serbian elections, arguing that taking part would legitimise Milošević’s rule. Instead, the LDK built a parallel system of institutions. It had its own education and health services for the Albanian population, funded mostly by the diaspora, above all in Germany and the United States. The Serbian and Yugoslav authorities considered this system illegal and pressured LDK activists, but the party was not banned and Rugova was allowed to travel abroad.

Rugova supported independence but firmly rejected the use of force. While wars raged in neighbouring Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, he feared that an armed conflict in Kosovo and Metohija would bring a similarly bloody outcome. He therefore advocated a policy of passive resistance, while constantly seeking Western support. He also emphasised the heritage of ancient Dardania, in order to strengthen his people’s identity and justify closer ties with Europe and America.

The 1992 and 1998 Elections

On 24 May 1992, Albanians organised their own elections, which the authorities in Belgrade ignored. Rugova was elected president of the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo, while the parliament chosen in those elections was never able to convene. Bujar Bukoshi, who operated from Germany, was chosen as prime minister. This entity was officially recognised only by Albania.

In March 1998 Rugova was re-elected president in unofficial elections. The LDK then won a majority of seats in the Albanian assembly. Sources differ on the exact date of the first elections (some give January 1992), but most mention 24 May.

The Dayton Agreement and the Education Agreement

The Dayton Agreement of 1995 ended the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but it did not mention Kosovo and Metohija. This seriously weakened Rugova’s position. More radical voices appeared among Albanians, arguing that only an armed uprising could draw the world’s attention and that the non-violent policy had shown its limits.

On 1 September 1996 Rugova signed an education agreement with Slobodan Milošević, which attempted to resolve the schooling of Albanian children. Supporters saw it as a practical step, while critics regarded it as a concession. It was also one of the few direct agreements between the two sides during the 1990s.

The Rise of the KLA and Waning Influence

In 1997 the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) took the stage and began armed attacks. The response of the Serbian forces was strong, and by 1998 the KLA had grown into a larger guerrilla army. According to figures in the literature, around 100,000 Albanians became refugees, and the province found itself on the verge of open conflict.

On 15 May 1998 Rugova spoke with Milošević in Belgrade, and he later testified that no real progress was made. In December 1998 he received the European Parliament’s Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought. Nevertheless, his political influence was declining. In February 1999, ahead of the talks at Rambouillet, Hashim Thaçi, the political representative of the KLA, and not Rugova, was placed at the head of the Albanian delegation.

Rambouillet, the Bombing and the Meeting with Milošević

The talks at Rambouillet produced no agreement, and at the end of March 1999 NATO began its bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Rugova spent the first weeks of the war with his family under house arrest in Pristina. According to his later testimony before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, soldiers entered his house on 31 March 1999 and placed him under supervision.

At the beginning of April 1999 he was taken to Belgrade, where he was shown on state television in a conversation with Milošević. The date differs between sources (1 or 2 April). A short text on a commitment to a political process was signed. Rugova later claimed that the meeting was a staged show for propaganda purposes and that he went to Belgrade under pressure. The event did serious damage to him among part of the Albanian public.

Exile in Italy and Return

He met Milošević for the last time on 4 May 1999, when he was permitted to leave the country. The next day, 5 May, he flew with his family to Rome on an Italian military aircraft. The Community of Sant’Egidio took part in arranging his departure, and talks with Belgrade were conducted by the Italian foreign minister Lamberto Dini.

In Rome he stated that he was not a traitor to his people and that he had to try to talk to Milošević. Nevertheless, his return to Kosovo and Metohija was delayed, which also drew criticism. In mid-July 1999, on 15 July, he briefly came to Pristina and called for reconciliation, and his final return followed later that month. Sources differ on the exact date of the final return, but they agree that he was welcomed as a hero.

Rule Under United Nations Administration

After the war, real power belonged to the United Nations mission (UNMIK). Rugova formally remained president, while Hashim Thaçi had led a provisional government since April of that year. On 15 December 1999 it was agreed that power would be shared within the Interim Administrative Council, which included, besides Rugova and Thaçi, Rexhep Qosja and Rada Trajković, together with the UN representatives Bernard Kouchner and later Hans Hækkerup.

Despite the political damage he suffered during the war, Rugova soon regained support. Part of the Albanian public was put off by the perception that the KLA was involved in organised crime and violence against political opponents. In the local elections of October 2000, the LDK won around 58 percent of the vote, while the Democratic Party of Kosovo, linked to the KLA, received around 27 percent. The same trend was confirmed in the parliamentary elections of 2001.

In May 2002 Rugova testified as a witness in The Hague at the trial of Slobodan Milošević and described the events of 1999.

President of Kosovo and Metohija Under UN Administration

On 4 March 2002 the Assembly of Kosovo elected Ibrahim Rugova president, this time with the recognition of the international community. He continued to advocate full independence, but on condition that it be achieved by peaceful means and with the agreement of all sides. He pursued a policy of close relations with the United States and the European Union.

His gradual approach was criticised by more radical circles, but he tried to bring in supporters of the former KLA as well. In November 2004 he appointed Ramush Haradinaj, a former KLA commander, as prime minister, and in December of the same year the Assembly re-elected him president. Even so, he faced violent opposition. On 15 March 2005 he escaped an assassination attempt when a bomb exploded in a waste container beside which his car was passing, and he was not injured.

Illness and Death

On 30 August 2005 Rugova travelled to the American military hospital in Landstuhl, Germany, for treatment, after earlier examinations in Pristina and at the American base Camp Bondsteel. A week later he returned to Kosovo and Metohija, and on 5 September 2005 he publicly announced that he had lung cancer, adding that he would not resign. American military doctors carried out chemotherapy at his residence in Pristina.

He died on 21 January 2006 in Pristina, aged 61. According to sources, at one of his last public appearances he said that independence was the only thing not achieved that year, but that it would be achieved in 2006. Talks on the future status of the province had been planned for February 2006, but his death postponed them.

He was buried on 26 January 2006 in Pristina, on a hill in the Velanija neighbourhood, with state honours. Five days of mourning were declared, and according to estimates up to half a million people attended the funeral. Guests included the EU’s foreign policy chief Javier Solana and the head of the UN mission Søren Jessen-Petersen. According to sources, representatives of the Islamic Community also performed Islamic prayers.

He was succeeded as head of the LDK and as president by Fatmir Sejdiu. The provisional institutions in Pristina unilaterally declared independence in 2008, which Serbia does not recognise.

Private Life

Ibrahim Rugova was married to Fana and had three children: Mendim, Uke and Teuta. According to a 2016 report by Radio Free Europe, his son Uke Rugova appeared in a later election on the list of the Alliance for the Future of Kosovo rather than the LDK, and called on the political spectrum to cooperate.

He lived with his family in Pristina throughout his presidential term. Little about his private life has been confirmed in public sources, and one of his close associates, Sabri Hamiti, refuted rumours of his supposed conversion to Catholicism. According to the same source, Rugova called himself a “symbolic Muslim.”

Interesting Facts

• He was easily recognisable by the silk scarf he wore almost constantly. The American weekly Newsweek described the look as a blend of Parisian existentialism and an intellectual style.
• He gave visitors pieces of minerals and crystals from his collection. According to sources, diplomats compared the size of the crystals they received in order to judge the impression a meeting had left.
• He was known as a heavy smoker.
• The day after his death, the Pristina newspaper Kosova Sot called him the “Gandhi of the Balkans.”
• In Kosovo and Metohija he is often called “Ati i Kombit” (Father of the Nation) and “Ati themeltar” (Founding Father).
• The R7 motorway linking Kosovo and Metohija with Albania has borne his name since 2013.

Awards and Honours

• 1995: Peace Prize of the Paul Litzer Foundation, Denmark.
• 1996: Honorary doctorate of the University of Paris VIII.
• 1998: Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought of the European Parliament.
• 1998: Homo Homini Award of People in Need for human rights activism.
• 1999: Peace Prize of the City of Münster, Germany; honorary citizen of Venice, Milan and Brescia.
• 2000: Peace Prize of the Democratic Union of Catalonia, Barcelona.
• 2003: “European Senator of Honour” recognition.
• 2004: Honorary doctorate of the University of Tirana; Europe Prize of the Coudenhove-Kalergi Foundation.
• 2005: Special recognition from the New York City Council.
• 2006: National Flag Order of Albania (posthumously).
• 2007: Order “Hero of Kosovo” (posthumously).

Legacy and Influence

In the Albanian public, Ibrahim Rugova is remembered as a symbol of peaceful struggle and political resistance. Anniversaries of his death are marked with commemorative ceremonies, flowers laid at his grave and speeches by state leaders. On the tenth anniversary of his death in 2016, the then LDK leader Isa Mustafa described him as the man who laid the foundations of Kosovo’s statehood.

Assessments of his role nevertheless differ. Supporters stress that he spared the population a war in the Bosnian style and secured Western support. Critics, including part of the Albanian public, faulted his rigidity in the 1990s, the slow pace of progress and his trip to Belgrade in 1999. The Serbian and Yugoslav authorities, for their part, regarded his parallel institutions as illegal. For this reason Rugova remains one of the most contested and most studied figures in recent Balkan history.